CYTOLOGY
INTRODUCTION Definition Cytology is the study of individual cells and/or tissue fragments. Uses of Cytology •• Diagnosis –– The diagnosis...
November 15, 2025
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SPUTUM EXAMINATION
INTRODUCTION Sputum is a highly specialized watery, colorless and odorless product of the respiratory tract. Expectorated sputum is always abnormal...
November 15, 2025
PREGNANCY TEST
INTRODUCTION Pregnancy test detects human chorionic gonadotropin(hCG), which is a hormone secreted by the viable placental tissue. The test may be...
November 15, 2025
SEMEN ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION Semen (seminal fluid) consists of spermatozoa (sperms) and the fluid part. About 40% cases of infertility are due to...
November 15, 2025
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID EXAMINATION
INTRODUCTION Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is formed within the ventricles and circulates in the subarachnoid space (between arachnoid and pia matter)...
November 13, 2025
BODY FLUIDS
INTRODUCTION Body fluids are lubricating fluids present within the body cavities. Normally, a small amount of fluid is present within...
November 13, 2025
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION IN URINALYSIS
CHEMICAL EXAMINATION Chemical constituents of a normal urine sample are shown in Table 50.5. Proteinuria Normal urine may contain up...
November 12, 2025
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION IN URINALYSIS
INTRODUCTION Urine analysis (urinalysis) reflects the state of function of the kidneys and urinary tract. It provides information about metabolic...
November 12, 2025
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